Voodoo and Superstition Rife in Africa
The persistence of superstitious beliefs among sub-Saharans has been largely ignored by mainstream economists — due to Political Correctness.
by Lipton Matthews
LACK OF economic development in Africa has long been a puzzle for scholars and policymakers. Conventional wisdom suggests that free-market reforms ought to be sufficient to kickstart growth. And while such reforms have generated some growth, they have not led to sustained development comparable to that seen in East Asia or Eastern Europe. Why? Low average IQ is obviously part of the explanation. But it’s not the whole story. The persistence of superstitious beliefs, notably in witchcraft, has been largely ignored by mainstream economists — due to Political Correctness. Yet it is essential to understanding Africa’s under-development.
Georg Oesterdiekhoff’s theory of psychosocial development provides a useful framework for analyzing this phenomenon. Building on Jean Piaget’s model of cognitive development, it suggests that societies pass through different stages of cognitive complexity. [More primitive] societies tend to function at the “preoperational” or “concrete operational” stages, in which magical explanations for natural events predominate. Advanced economies in the West and East Asia have moved beyond superstitious thinking. Africa, on the other hand, remains deeply influenced by such thinking — despite urbanization and the expansion of education.
A widespread belief in witchcraft is one of the strongest indicators of “preoperational” cognitive complexity. And it is not merely some harmless cultural feature but, rather, a serious impediment to growth.
One of the most significant ways belief in witchcraft hinders development is by discouraging entrepreneurship and wealth creation. In many African societies, individuals fear that economic success will bring trouble, as those who accumulate wealth are often accused of using witchcraft to prosper at the expense of their peers. Unsurprisingly, this fosters an environment where capable individuals deliberately eschew success — so as to evade accusations of sorcery.
Indeed, a study of rural Tiv communities in Nigeria by Ngutor Sambe and Dajo Ugba confirmed that fear of supernatural retribution discourages individuals from engaging in business. It also found that wealthy individuals sometimes go to great lengths to conceal their financial status — the better to avoid being labeled as witches. This has serious consequences: when people refrain from entrepreneurship out of fear, societies are deprived of opportunities for development.
William Darley and Charles Blankson also found evidence that superstitious beliefs suppress productive activity in Africa. Many aspiring business owners actually worry that envious individuals would use witchcraft to destroy their ventures. Such worries act as a psychological barrier, discouraging risk-taking and innovation. The entrepreneurial spirit is replaced by fatalism, leaving economic potential untapped.
What’s more, people are less likely to be held accountable under these conditions because failures can be blamed on external [forces]. The fear of witchcraft can be so powerful that entrepreneurs choose not to expand their businesses, hoping to thwart the plans of suspected witches. A study in Cameroon documented that entrepreneurs not only reject managerial solutions to business challenges, but frequently attribute those challenges to supernatural forces, including ancestral spirits and witchcraft.
Even the financial sector is not immune to the influence of superstition. Essien Essien has documented that some Nigerians engage in ritual defacement of currency notes, believing it will ward off evil powers. The problem is so egregious that it accounts for practically all of the defacement of the Naira. Others avoid using banking services altogether — because they suspect that their money will be manipulated through supernatural means. It is not only costly for the central bank to replace disfigured notes; irrational behavior undermines the functioning of modern financial institutions and stymies integration with the global economy.
In many African countries, political figures exploit these beliefs to consolidate power, silence opposition, and maintain social control. In a recent study, Johanna Adolfsson and colleagues examine how leaders use narratives surrounding witchcraft to justify their rule. Leaders often claim supernatural protection or accuse their rivals of engaging in sorcery. Instead of evidence-based policymaking, they rely on mysticism to legitimize their authority. South Africa’s former President Jacob Zuma was known for exploiting the deep-seated reverence for ancestor worship to manipulate voters into supporting his policies.
Superstition is particularly visible in electoral politics, where supernatural interventions are frequently invoked to explain political outcomes. When a politician loses an election, it is not uncommon for his supporters to blame the loss on witchcraft rather than ineffective campaigning or voter dissatisfaction.
Belief in witchcraft also fosters corruption in government. Public officials who believe in supernatural forces may prioritize rituals and magic over accountability and transparency. Some may even divert state resources to traditional healers or spiritualists.
At the local level, accusations of witchcraft are a major source of violence. An individual accused of witchcraft may be ostracized, attacked, or even brutally killed. Such acts obviously erode trust and weaken social bonds, making it difficult for people to cooperate and build a civil society.
The harmful impact of witchcraft beliefs extends beyond business and government to the domain of public health. Misconceptions about the causes of different diseases, and how to treat them, are widespread in Africa. This is particularly true when it comes to HIV/AIDS. Amr El-Qushayri and Amira Benmelouka studied Senegalese people’s beliefs about HIV, revealing that many women believe the infection is caused by witchcraft (as opposed to sexual intercourse with an infected person). As a consequence, the disease continues to spread.
In a similar study, Eric Tenkorang and colleagues examined how superstition impedes HIV prevention efforts in Ghana. Owing to the entrenched belief that infectious diseases are caused by witches, many people refuse to believe that behavior makes a difference. Some turn to spiritual healers for “cures” rather than seeking medical treatment. Such healers claim to possess supernatural abilities that can cure AIDS, convincing patients to abandon antiretroviral therapy. Aside from reinforcing irrational beliefs, this puts an additional strain on the public health system.
Perhaps the most horrifying consequence of superstition is the abuse of children. In some African cultures, those born with disabilities are considered “spirit children” and are thought to bring misfortune to their families. Emmanuel Owusu has documented how children suspected of being “possessed” are sometimes poisoned, drowned, or simply abandoned. Despite efforts to curb these practices, they persist due to deeply ingrained beliefs. Mensah Adinkrah studied the phenomenon of child witch hunts in Ghana, where children accused of witchcraft are tortured or exiled from their communities.
One might assume that formal education would provide a safeguard against magical thinking. However, research suggests that schooling alone is not sufficient. In a 2014 study, Heiner Rindermann and colleagues compared cognitive ability and epistemic rationality in Nigeria and Germany. They found that belief in supernatural forces was prevalent even among educated Nigerians. Surveys of African university students have reached similar findings. In a sample of Nigerian students, many argued that Western countries are more technologically advanced because they possess magical powers that they refuse to share with Africans. The Afrobarometer survey shows that in some countries educated people are more likely to believe in witchcraft.
Belief in witchcraft represents a significant barrier to African development. It inhibits entrepreneurship, undermines governance, exacerbates public health crises, and contributes to interpersonal violence. Unfortunately, much of Africa still engages in magical thinking — despite improvements in schooling.
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Source: an abridgement of an article at Aporia magazine; read the full article here
